Teaching Controversial Issues

Introduction

Exploring controversial issues so that students develop a deeper, more critical understanding of the world they live in is an important part of a university course of study. Exposing students to controversial issues in their studies enables them to develop their capacity for ethical and moral reasoning and become critically reflective thinkers.

However, because issues are controversial they are likely to challenge students' personally held values, beliefs, and world views. This can be very threatening and confusing to students and may also cause some students considerable distress. Therefore when controversial issues are addressed in the classroom students often resist the learning because they feel threatened and/or angry.

William Perry (1999) outlined nine stages of development in ethical and moral reasoning in post compulsory education years that provides a useful framework for considering the type of thinking your students exhibit in your classroom. Perry argues that students' reasoning develops through the following stages:

Dual
- Perry argued that students often arrive at university exhibiting dualistic thinking. That is, something is either right or wrong and it is so because authority, namely teachers, parents, experts or leaders, have named it so. You may find such students pressurise you to give them the answer!
Multiplicity
- In this next stage there is a recognition of uncertainty. However, students merely regard this uncertainty as a temporary condition and seek to find the ultimate truth which still must come from those in authority.
Relativism
- Students at this stage tend to value all views equally within the limits of personal standards. They believe that there is no one true interpretation but still reserve the right to exercise the principle of right and wrong. You will often find students at this stage able to describe in detail different theoretical positions but often unable to take and defend a stance.
Commitment
- Students at this level are able to make a choice about their stance using evidence to defend their opinion. They are also able to examine the impact and implications of commitments and see them as trade-offs.
Limited commitment
- At this stage students are able to do all of the previous stage but they understand that their own views are part of human growth and in making a commitment to a position in an argument they are able to critically reflect on it and modify it in the light of experience and further evidence.

Why teach controversial issues?

they are topical
they can be directly related to students' lives
it is an essential part of the curriculum if universities are to fulfill their role in society
it provides a chance for staff and students to reflect, to develop, to practice, to comprehend
it can assist students to develop their ethical and moral reasoning.

Characteristics of controversial issues

A controversial issue is one in which
- there are competing values and interests
- people disagree strongly about statements, assertions or actions
- there is political sensitivity
- emotions become strongly aroused
- protest is aroused.

Controversial issues can be about
- what has happened
- the causes of the present situation
- the desirable ends to work towards
- the appropriate course of action to be taken
- the likely effect of action

Controversy
- is usually complex
- requires knowledge, awareness of self and a sense of identity
- requires balance, disclosure of commitment and 'neutrality' i.e. taking a stance without coercion or indoctrination of others.

Strategies for teaching controversial issues

The teacher's task in addressing controversial issues includes:

Establishing the ground rules
Moderating "classroom incivilities"
Moderating both their own and their students' over-attachment to content and overreaction to criticism
Moderating negative thinking and strong emotions.

1. Ground rules are needed to govern how class processes work and to moderate the nature of contributions to the discussion. The purpose of such rules is to enable the free flow of ideas in a safe, non-threatening environment with the goal of having students think about and question their assumptions and listen to others. Often the goal of teaching a topic is not 'clearer ideas' but 'greater confusion'. This has to be tolerated as a stage in moving towards an independent opinion (Straddling, Noctor and Baines, 1984).

Strategies
- make it a rule that students (and you) only make statements about an issue, a person or group of people if they were prepared to make that statement directly and respectfully to a person to whom the issue is important or to a member of that group
  - that is, abusive and derogatory comments do not have a place in the conversation
  - encourage students to think carefully before they speak and to avoid emotive or inflammatory language
- make it a rule that people have evidence for what they say - this could be based on personal experience or research evidence
  - encourage students to understand the difference between valid personal experience (e.g. a student who belongs to a minority group who has experienced discrimination from a range of sources) and personal prejudices (e.g. the 'sample of one', in which a student draws on stereotypes and uses contact with a single member of that group to confirm their stereotypical viewpoint)
  - ensure that the conclusions a student draws from personal experience can be logically and coherently supported - this is an anecdote suitable for a university class not a dinner party story
- encourage critical diagnosis through a range of techniques e.g.
  - take note of the sources of various types of information and how they are positioned in relation to the issue e.g. what is at stake and what might be gained?
  - take note of the possible gaps in information and where and how they might have arisen e.g. are any points of view silenced or over-represented?
  - evaluate and prioritize the information available e.g. which information is likely to be more objective and is there a balance of information?
  - challenge the authority of the information/source by asking awkward/probing questions e.g. who benefits/does not benefit from this proposal?
  - help students to "recognise rhetoric" (Straddling, Noctor and Baines, 1984) and detect 'style over substance'
  - see Straddling, Noctor and Baines, 1984 for a fuller treatment of these issues
- "cultivate tentativeness" (Straddling, Noctor and Baines, 1984) among students

2. "Classroom incivilities" (Boice, R 1996) can include teacher and student behaviours that impact on the classroom atmosphere and negatively affect learning.

Teacher incivility includes rudeness, prejudice, and neglecting the needs of individual students or groups of students. Teacher behaviours that can stimulate classroom incivilities from students are those that appear uncaring of students' welfare and learning and include poor teaching practices. Student incivility can manifest as poor punctuality, lack of preparation for or non-participation in classes, disruption of classes, distraction of teacher and fellow students, and cheating.

To effectively manage classroom incivilities, a teacher must be aware of elements of teacher behaviour that are or can stimulate classroom incivilities, and be aware of elements of student behaviour that are or can stimulate classroom incivilities. (See Boice, Robert, 1996 for a detailed discussion of classroom incivility.)

Strategies
- attend to the morale of the classroom
  - set out to establish the 'tone' of classes from the very first session
  - adopt 'prosocial' motivators, such as positive encouragement, instead of threats e.g. "I know you can do a good job of this" instead of "If you don't do this properly, you'll fail"
  - develop a warm, sincere attitude to students using both verbal and non-verbal means e.g. use eye contact and smile; let students complete questions before beginning to answer; do not use sarcasm or put downs; be available for students
  - check that students perceive that the topic content and activities are relevant and meaningful to their lives - boredom and discouragement can engender incivility
  - use student incivility in a positive, non-aggressive manner e.g. if a student yawns or groans loudly, respond with humour and comment that it might be time for a brief break/further explanation
  - develop and model civil behaviours e.g. arrive on time, be prepared for class, listen to students and respond positively, treat students with respect.

3. Moderating over-attachment to ideas and overreaction to criticism is an important first step in encouraging students to move from simplistic 'black-white' thinking to more sophisticated approaches.

It is important to understand that students might use a range of strategies, deliberately or unwittingly, in order to cling to their viewpoint. These can include: only taking note of information that confirms their opinion; discounting information that is not congruent with their opinion; and revising or distorting information so that is is congruent with their opinion. The extent to which this occurs can depend on how new or threatening the new ideas are and the relative value the student places on the new ideas. Therefore students need to be empathetically supported to become aware of these processes and to accept new ideas.

It involves fostering reflexivity, attending to one's own assumptions, and focusing on the learning process in place of the content. A range of activities can be used in which students can explore, test and review their own ideas and explore the ideas of others. Essential to the success of this process is that the teacher is self-reflexive and has questioned her own ideas and assumptions.

Strategies
- debates, especially encouraging students to argue from a viewpoint opposed to their own, can encourage reasoned analysis of multiple aspects of a controversial issue
  - it takes time to think up good debating topics and prepare for a worthwhile debate [find ref]
- brainstorms can encourage students to work as a group in seeing all possible aspects of a controversial issue and can be used for a range of purposes e.g.
  - fact finding to define a problem
  - idea finding to produce and develop ideas
  - solution finding to generate and evaluate potential solutions
- role-plays and simulations can assist students to develop empathy with the other's point of view
  - for example, students can 'take a moment in history' and role play from the points of view of all protagonists [example?]
  - for further ideas about role-playing see the HERDSA Green Guide No 21 Role-Play by Edward Errington (available from the Staff Development and Training Unit Resource Centre)
- problem-solving and exploration, using the following model
- distancing through analogies
  - devise an analogous but non-contentious situation that will allow students to first explore all of the elements at a safe intellectual and emotional distance and then look for similarities to the contentious situation. This reduces the impact of personal bias.

4. Moderating negative thinking and strong emotions is an important aspect of ensuring a 'smooth' approach to controversial issues. It involves becoming consciously aware of one's own cognitive and affective responses to the issue at hand and then encouraging students to do likewise. (See Boice, R 1996).

Strategies
- monitor thoughts and feelings before, during and after classes on controversial issues; it might be helpful to keep a written record to probe your responses and to track development
- take note of the impact of negative thoughts, especially what blocks to 'just getting on with it' are created
- attempt to reframe negative thoughts and feelings
  - identify which negative thoughts are irrational
  - replace negative thoughts with positive thoughts and feelings

In conclusion...

Often what may result for students is not clearer ideas but greater confusion, and hopefully a commitment to questioning and further independent exploration of the issue. And for you the teacher, a sense of achievement.